Taoist Political Ethics: A Preliminary Analysis
Abstract
Political ethics refers to the ethical relationships and principles of regulation within political activities. Taoism envisions a world of tranquility as its political ideal, proposing ethical demands of tranquility for monarchs, and seeks to imbue them with a degree of supervisory power and restraint through the path of personality deification and admonitions from spirits and deities. This political ethical perspective, rich with religious characteristics, represents an important aspect of traditional Chinese political ethics studies that should not be overlooked.
Keywords
Taoist political ethics; Subject ethics; Monarch perspective
Political ethics pertains to the ethical relationships and principles of regulation within political activities. Ancient Chinese politics, characterized by a monarchic centralized system, placed the monarch at the pinnacle of political power. Therefore, the ethical demands on monarchs become a crucial component of traditional Chinese political ethics. As a traditional religion of the Chinese nation, “Taoism has an extremely close relationship with ancient Chinese politics and social life. Without a thorough study of Chinese Taoism, it is impossible to fully understand ancient Chinese society and its history.” Through research and analysis, it is believed that Taoism holds a world of tranquility as its political ideal, imposing ethical demands of tranquility on monarchs, and attempts to endow these demands with a certain degree of supervisory power and restraint through the path of personality deification and moral persuasion by spirits and deities. This political ethical concept, rich with religious features, constitutes an indispensable aspect of the study of traditional Chinese political ethics.
In a tranquil nation, the ruler fosters a peaceful era as a political ideal and perspective on monarchs.
The founder of Taoist philosophy, Laozi, envisioned “a small country with few people” as the ideal societal state, advocating for the elimination of various constraints and harms that social civilization imposes on human existence. This societal ideal truly reflects a state of “tranquility,” which is also desired within Taoism. For instance, the description in “Wunengzi” (The Incompetent Master) reads: “In the ancient times, naked creatures and beings with scales, feathers, or fur lived together; males and females naturally mated without the distinction of men and women, husbands and wives, or the order of fathers and sons… Life proceeded freely, death came naturally, without the heart to harm or the acts of hoarding. Letting nature take its course, following the true nature, without any governance, purity and simplicity prevailed, this order has existed for a long time.” “Wunengzi”‘s reminiscence of people’s ability to follow nature and their true nature in “ancient times” is a return to Laozi’s societal ideal of “a small country with few people.” However, it should be noted that this perspective does not form the mainstream political ideal of Taoism. From the early Taoist scripture “Taiping Jing” (Scripture of Great Peace) offering “techniques to prosper the nation and extend its legacy” to the discussions on self-cultivation and state governance in the Daoist scholarship of the Sui and Tang dynasties, it is evident that Taoism mainly reflects on, suggests, and idealizes the governance of feudal states. According to descriptions in Taoist scriptures, Taoism regards “a world of tranquility” as the goal and pursuit of its ideal politics. For example, “Taishang Dongyuan Sanwei Shen Zhou Zhai Qingdan Xingdao Yi” (Rituals of Taoism in the Morning of the Fasting of the Three Flavors of the Mysterious Abyss of the Supreme Oneness) states: “May weapons be forever sheathed, droughts and floods not arise. Epidemics not invade, auspicious signs gather. In all the eight regions and nine territories, may the winds of tranquility prevail,” “Jinque Zhai Chan Fang Yi” (Rituals of Atonement and Fasting of the Golden Que) hopes for “a return to tranquility, abundant harvests. Swords and spears not flown, auspicious omens gathered,” and “Yaoxiu Ke Yi Jielu Chao” (Essential Rituals and Precepts for Cultivation) also uses “a tranquil nation, a peaceful rule, no unrighteousness” as the standard for ideal politics. It is evident that the political ideal of a tranquil world in Taoism manifests in political relations and life as harmony between the monarch and his subjects, orderly governance; in social life, it is hoped for disasters not to arise, harvests to be abundant, and the world to be at peace.
After clarifying the basic characteristics of Taoism’s political ideal, it is necessary to explore the status of the monarch within it. Max Weber in his book “Confucianism and Taoism” suggests that the “correct life” of the monarch is considered the key to the fate of the kingdom and the cosmic order, a notion taken for granted by both Confucianists and Taoists. Professor Lu Xichen pointed out the bias of this view, arguing that Taoist scholars influenced by Taoism do not consider the monarch’s life and other subjective factors as the key to the “cosmic order.” Instead, only a lifestyle and behavioral norms derived from “Dao,” the cosmic order and fundamental law, represent a “correct life.”
Professor Lu Xichen’s view clearly identifies the basis of Taoist political theory, that is, Taoism bases its principles of state governance on the Dao. However, it should also be noted that although Taoism does not regard the monarch’s personal life and other subjective factors as the key to the “cosmic order,” it vehemently advocates that the monarch is central to governance. Taoism’s political ideal does not propose dismantling the political system of ancient feudal states where the monarch held unrestricted and supreme imperial power; it cannot transcend its historical and temporal limitations to demand political concepts that subvert the feudal order, such as returning power to the people. For example, “Tongxuan Zhenjing” (True Scripture of the Mysterious and Profound) states: “The ruler is the heart of the country. If the heart is orderly, all limbs are at peace; if the heart is disturbed, all limbs are in chaos.” Using the “heart of the country” as a metaphor for the monarch, it is clear that Taoism believes the well-being and misfortune of the people depend on the monarch, and the realization of the political ideal of a tranquil world also relies on the monarch’s power.
It should be pointed out that Taoism also emphasizes the monarch’s duty to “relieve the people’s burdens and resolve grievances,” as “Tongxuan Zhenjing” believes: “The ancient establishment of monarchs was not for the indulgence of their desires. When sages ascended to their positions, it was not for their own leisure and pleasure, but for the people of the world. The strong oppress the weak, the many bully the few, the deceitful deceive the naive, the brave invade the timid, and they do not teach each other wisdom and deceit, nor share their accumulated wealth. Therefore, the Emperor was established to unify them. As a single person’s wisdom cannot illuminate the entire sea, the Three Dukes and Nine Ministers were established to support him. As remote countries and different customs could not receive benevolence, the feudal lords were established to educate them, hence heaven and earth and the four seasons respond accordingly. There are no hidden affairs in the government, no benefits left out in the country, hence clothing the cold, feeding the hungry, nurturing the old and weak, relieving the tired and weary, all for the sake of them.” Here, it is pointed out that the duty of monarchs and sages, as managers and administrators of the state, is to eliminate injustices such as “the strong oppressing the weak, the many bullying the few,” thereby achieving a tranquil and peaceful world. However, governing the country and managing the world is a grand project that cannot be accomplished by the power of one person alone. Therefore, the Three Dukes, Nine Ministers, and feudal lords were established to assist the monarch, using this hierarchical and respectful ruling class to govern the people and achieve a reasonable state where the hungry are fed, the old are nurtured, and the weary can rest. Therefore, Taoism emphasizes the establishment of the Emperor, division of feudal lords, and placement of officials fundamentally aims at seeking welfare for the people and achieving peace. This understanding is undoubtedly commendable.
Valuing the Dao and Non-action, Leading by Being Tranquil: The Ethical Demands on Political Subjects
As previously mentioned, Taoism regards a world of tranquility as its political ideal and sees the monarch as central to achieving this goal. At the same time, Taoism, absorbing the political governance model of “the monarch does nothing, and the subjects act” from the Huang-Lao school of thought in the Qin and Han dynasties, believes that only by adhering to the political ethical demands centered on tranquility can the political ideal be realized under this governance model. For example, the famous Taoist scholar Li Rong of the Tang dynasty in his commentary on “Dao De Jing” states: “Both the large and small are light, unable to reach the foundation. Both the superior and inferior are restless, unfit for a monarch. Hence, one light and one heavy, the light takes the heavy as its foundation. One restless and one tranquil, the restless takes the tranquil as its master. Therefore, the virtue of the monarch is to value heaviness and tranquility. The affairs of the ministers are to be light and restless. Each upholds their duty, and the monarch must be heavy and tranquil.” It is clear from this that under the governance model of “the monarch does nothing, and the subjects act,” the monarch must maintain tranquility to ensure that both the monarch and his subjects each perform their roles and responsibilities. So, what are the principle orientations of tranquility as a political subject’s ethical demand?
Firstly, frugality and few desires. Taoism’s focus on the virtue of frugality for monarchs is based on a deep understanding of ancient monarchial power. The prosperity and decline of ancient societies often have a close relationship with how monarchs view and utilize power. If a monarch uses power for personal gain and pleasure, it may lead to unrest in the world. The famous Taoist scholar Du Guangting of the Tang dynasty provides a profound elaboration on the monarch’s requirements for frugality in “Dao De Jing Guang Sheng Yi” (Broad Holy Meanings of the Dao De Jing), advocating that “the sovereign values the Dao and embodies non-action, leading by example and promoting tranquility,” clearly regarding tranquility as a political ethical demand that the monarch must uphold and propagate. Du Guangting also proposes the principle that “the way to govern a country is based on tranquility,” saying in “Dao De Jing Guang Sheng Yi”: “The heart of a sovereign is based on wisdom and holiness; the way to govern a country is based on tranquility. Hunting in the wilderness, racing chariots, the six dragons running wild, ten thousand horses uncatchable, competing with eagles and ospreys for speed, contending with bears and panthers for bravery, eclipsing the sun and moon, entangling banners and flags, hunting without returning, killing without end, the weather constantly chaotic, palaces sometimes empty. This is called madness. Furthermore, valuing exotic goods from distant lands, coveting useless territories, craving soy sauce to conquer the Western barbarians, attacking Dayuan for famous horses, the spirits at the borders never returning, the souls at the frontier cities filled with resentment, the world in exile, the population depleted, the magnificent ancestral temples, almost fallen into the hands of enemies.”
From this, it is evident that Taoist scholars fully recognize the disastrous consequences that a monarch’s indulgence in pleasure can bring and emphasize that this should serve as a “warning for a hundred generations.” “Dao De Jing Guang Sheng Yi” also refers to the monarch’s virtue of frugality and few desires as one of the “affairs of non-dwelling,” according to Laozi’s original meaning, “non-dwelling” mainly refers to not dwelling on achievements. The book, from the perspective of political ethical demands on monarchs, broadly interprets this phrase as “affairs of non-dwelling” that the monarch should heed, such as in Volume 7 stating: “The sovereign has no affairs of non-dwelling… When the sovereign is not capricious in joy and anger, then penalties and rewards are not arbitrary, and military actions do not arise. When not capricious in seeking gains, then taxes and levies are not heavy, and supplies are not burdensome. When not capricious in love and hate, then appointments and dismissals are appropriate, and the worthy and unworthy are distinguished. When not capricious in close attendance, then those to the left, right, front, and back are all upright individuals. When not capricious in land, then arms are not drawn, and soldiers are not weary. When not capricious towards the populace, then the world is at peace. Things receive their share, not relying on their achievements, non-action does not rely on its benefits.” The text lists “not being capricious in joy and anger,” “not being capricious in seeking gains,” “not being capricious in love and hate,” “not being capricious in close attendance,” “not being capricious in land,” and “not being capricious towards the populace” as standards for the monarch’s virtue, all clearly demanding that the monarch should practice frugality and have few desires, with the intent to advise rulers clear to see. Taoist analysis of the monarch’s virtue of frugality and few desires also involves the exemplary influence of the monarch’s actions on his ministers, as “Dongling Zhenjing” (True Scripture of the Mysterious Spirit) states, “If the sovereign indulges his desires, then all officials and people will fully expand their desires.”
As the highest ruler of the state, the monarch’s virtue of frugality and few desires can have a positive guiding effect on his subjects. Conversely, what the upper echelons enjoy, the lower echelons will surely follow to an extreme degree, leading to the oppressed people fleeing or even harboring thoughts of betrayal.
Secondly, humility and non-contention. In the political philosophy of the pre-Qin Daoist school, humility and non-contention were already regarded as a political virtue. For example, Laozi considered “benevolence,” “frugality,” and “daring not to be the first in the world” as the three treasures, believing that “because of benevolence, one can be courageous; because of frugality, one can be generous; because of daring not to be the first in the world, one can become the instrument of the world.” Later, many Taoist scriptures elaborated on the virtue of humility and non-contention for monarchs. Lu Xisheng’s commentary on “Dao De Jing” states: “People who follow the Dao are good at everything, hence called the supremely good. Water always stays in the dirtiest places and does not contend with other things, therefore all things benefit from it, which is close to the Dao. Hence, people who are supremely good are like the virtue of water; their place in the world is like water on the ground; their intention is like the depth of water; their generosity is like the moistening of water; their speech is like the truthfulness of water; their governance is like the tranquility of water; their actions are like water serving as a vessel; their changes are like water adapting to the seasons. Only by constantly staying in the dirtiest places, can no one harm them; only by not contending with other things, can nothing contend with them.” Here, the discussion on water’s virtue of staying low and non-contention also emphasizes that governance should be like the tranquility of water, i.e., the monarch should learn from and emulate the humility and non-contention of water.
Some Taoist scriptures also point out the significance and value of humility and non-contention from the perspective of the Taoist ideal personality – the sage. For example, “Tongxuan Zhenjing” (True Scripture of the Profound and Mysterious) discusses the way of heaven and then analyzes the way of man, saying: “The way of heaven suppresses the high and lifts the low, reduces the excess, and supplements the deficiency. The rivers and seas are in the place of insufficiency, hence all under heaven submit to and serve them. Sages are humble, quiet, and yielding, seen as inferior… Sages hold the feminine, avoid extravagance and arrogance, dare not exhibit the force of the strong and the beam, hold the feminine to be the north, hence can establish their masculinity, dare not be extravagant and arrogant, hence can last long. Only those who are not arrogant and extravagant, holding the feminine and being heroic, return to them as the king of all heroes.” “Tongxuan Zhenjing” believes that sages precisely possess the virtue of humility and non-contention, thus can become the king of all heroes, showing its earnest advice for monarchs to adhere to the ethics of tranquility.
In ancient Chinese society, rulers at high positions actually lacked effective supervisors. If they did not cultivate the temperament of humility and non-contention, they would easily develop negative attitudes such as arrogance, self-importance, and self-righteousness. For example, “Dao De Jing Lun Bing Yao Yi Shu” (Essential Meanings of the Military Chapter of the Dao De Jing) states: “For those who are rulers of men, they already possess heroic talents and strategies, a majestic demeanor and fierce spirit, and moreover, occupy the supreme position, standing above millions, surrounded by six armies, with hundreds of officials present, without malice yet stern, without anger yet awe-inspiring. Hence, they always wish to maintain their femininity and tranquility, as if they were the creeks of the world. Creeks are places that are receptive and accommodating, hiding diseases and accepting filth. If so, their virtue always remains with them.” If “Dao De Jing Lun Bing Yao Yi Shu” still only adopts a positive exhortation method to remind monarchs to uphold the virtue of humility and non-contention, “Dao De Jing Guang Sheng Yi” Volume 13 directly points out the evil consequences that emperors and generals self-esteemed as great will bring: “When a ruler of men esteems himself and acts for the world, he must self-esteem and magnify himself, create blessings and display might, to look down upon people, to indulge his desires, to seek extravagant decorations, to pursue extravagant desires, externally to harm things and oppress people, to exhaust troops and let weapons loose, internally to luxurious palaces and meat forests. Accumulating the grievances and sighs of the world, enjoying leisure and pleasure for oneself, glorifying his titles, deepening his moats and barriers, rewarding with terraces and trees, ponds and pools, staying with concubines and attendants, not knowing the alienation and loss of virtue of the people, yet wishing to be the foundation of a thousand generations, sinking and perishing in no time, as if briefly residing in the world.” “Dao De Jing Guang Sheng Yi” believes that the ruler’s arrogant and self-righteous mentality is the psychological factor leading to his accumulation of wealth and indulgence in desires, oppression of people, and this discussion serves as a good reminder to those arrogant and self-indulgent rulers.
Laojun’s Teachings, Utilizing Tranquility: The Supervisory Mechanism of Political Ethics As a religion, the important distinction between Taoist political ethics and Confucian advocacy lies in Taoism’s support and restraint through its highest belief “Dao,” and the system of spirits and deities. Undoubtedly, this approach of Taoism absorbs Confucianism, especially Dong Zhongshu’s cosmological theology of the correspondence between heaven and man, but advising monarchs with the doctrines of Daojun and spirits and deities is undoubtedly a development made by Taoism.
If we examine carefully, it is not difficult to find that in the early classic “Taiping Jing” (Scripture of Great Peace), the concept of the monarch governing the country in accordance with the intention of heaven and earth was proposed by adopting the theory of correspondence between heaven and man. In the development process of Taoism, it gradually established the Dao as the highest belief, advocating the reverence and worship of the Dao, affirming the origin and essence of the Dao, while continuously deifying it. For example, “Laozi Xiang Er Zhu” (Commentary on Laozi) deifies the Dao into Tai Shang Laojun (Supreme Old Lord) through “one disperses to form qi, gathers to form Tai Shang Laojun,” and expresses the will of tranquility of Tai Shang Laojun as the standard that rulers must follow in governance. “Laozi Xiang Er Zhu” states: “The nature of the Dao does not do evil thing , thus it can become divine, omnipotent, and Daoists should emulate it. Although the ruler is exalted, he always fears the Dao, worships it sincerely… The nature of the Dao is to desire nothing in the mundane world; the ruler should also emulate this. The Dao always desires tranquility and enjoys peace, thus it ensures that heaven and earth are always orderly. Heaven and earth are ministers of the Dao; rulers emulate the Dao and follow its teachings, then all subjects will naturally correct themselves.” The text uses the value orientation of the Dao, which is characterized by desirelessness and non-action, as the standard for the “ruler’s” governance, and clearly states that the Dao enjoys tranquility, demanding that rulers govern in accordance with the Dao.
It is evident that the practice of Taoism to strengthen the monarch’s ethical demands of tranquility from the perspective of the highest belief “Dao” or divine beings originates very early. Approximately from the Tang dynasty, the Lingbao school’s Taoist scripture “Taishang Dongxuan Lingbao Guowang Xingdao Jing” (Supreme Mysterious and Precious Scripture on the Sovereign’s Practice of the Dao) correlates the good and evil deeds of human kings with their retributions, demonstrating the supervisory role of the multitude of saints on monarchs: “The Heavenly Lord said: Whether people cultivate goodness or commit evil, all are observed by the heavens, known by the multitude of saints, and furthermore, reviewed by the sovereigns and kings. Every action and deed is responded to by heaven. Good deeds elicit good responses; evil deeds elicit disasters. Observing the omens to admonish oneself, being tranquil and non-active, heaven and earth are at peace; disturbing yin and yang, troubling humans and ghosts, droughts and diseases, the flourishing and withering of grass and trees, are all sensed by the king alone. Therefore, as a ruler of people, one should follow the transformation of heaven, teach with morality, love the people and nurture things, desire little and keep private interests minimal, be tranquil and non-active, then one will live long, and the state will be secure.” This scripture directly assigns divine beings as the supervisors for the human kings to adhere to the ethical demands of tranquility.
Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang dynasty also expressed similar views in his commentary on “Laozi.” “Laozi” Chapter 60 says: “Governing the world with Dao, its ghosts do not manifest; not that its ghosts do not manifest, but their manifestations do not harm people; not that their manifestations do not harm people, but the sage also does not harm people.” Regarding this, “Dao De Jing Guang Sheng Yi” Volume 41 includes Emperor Xuanzong’s interpretation: “Ghosts show divine beings and thus harm people, and sages act and thus harm people. Now, the reason why divine beings do not show divine beings and harm people is precisely because sages are non-active and tranquil.” From Emperor Xuanzong’s interpretation, it is evident that the discussion is about the connection between ghosts and divine beings harming people and whether they adhere to the ethics of tranquility. As long as tranquility and non-action are maintained, ghosts and divine beings naturally do not manifest and harm people. Isn’t this a clear pressure and supervision for the monarch to adhere to the ethical demands of tranquility? The rulers of the Tang dynasty revered Laozi as their distant ancestor, and Emperor Gaozong even conferred the title of Tai Shang Xuan Yuan Huang Di (Supreme Mysterious Primordial Emperor) on Laozi. Given the special relationship between Laozi (Laojun) and the rulers of the time, Taoism’s use of the will and purpose of Laojun to remind and advise rulers is undoubtedly a clever approach. Some Taoist scriptures of the Tang dynasty, such as “Taishang Huang Qing Zhai Yi” (Supreme Yellow Fasting Ritual), state: “The three revered ones establish teachings, focusing on refining sensitivity to precede others; the supreme sage sets down precepts, considering solemnity and reverence as the foundation… Ever since the profound ancient times, there have been nations and families. Those who strictly follow the rules of tranquility, then receive the grace of Xuan Yuan,” “Dao De Jing Guang Sheng Yi” Volume 34 states: “Laojun provides teachings, utilizing tranquility as the practice, non-action as the principle. Tranquility brings prosperity to the country and peace to the individual, non-action achieves the Dao and transforms people.” These quotations explicitly state “strictly follow the rules of tranquility, then receive the grace of Xuan Yuan,” “Laojun provides teachings, utilizing tranquility as the practice, non-action as the principle,” juxtaposing Laojun’s grace to the Li dynasty with the demands of tranquility in political ethics.
In summary, the political ethical view of Taoism is based on the political ideal of a tranquil world and proposes ethical demands. Taoism also attempts to propagate its political ethical view through its distinctive religious supervisory methods. While we cannot overestimate the effectiveness of Taoism’s political ethical view, organizing and discussing the aspects and values of Taoism’s political ethical understanding is also a basic attitude we should maintain when facing traditional Taoist culture.
(Affiliation: Quanzhou Teachers College, Quanzhou Municipal Federation of Trade Unions; This article is part of the research results of the special project “A Century of Taoist Research and Innovation Project” commissioned by the National Social Science Fund, project number: 09@ZH011)
Notes
Edited by Qing Xitai: “Taoism and Chinese Traditional Culture,” Fuzhou: Fujian People’s Publishing House, 1990, page 12.
[Germany] Max Weber: “Confucianism and Taoism,” translated by Hong Tianfu, Nanjing: Jiangsu People’s Publishing House, 1993, page 230.
Chang Xichen: “Daoism, Taoism, and Ancient Chinese Politics,” Changsha: Hunan People’s Publishing House, 2002, page 13.
4.5. Rao Zongyi: “Corrected Commentary on Laozi Xiang Er,” Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 1991, pages 12, 46-47.
Editor/Zhang Xiao